Bullying and Aggression in Schools | Gangs | Juvenile Delinquency |
Juvenile Psychopathy | Threat Assessment

Bullying and Aggression in Schools

Ashbaugh, L., & Cornell, D. (2008). Sexual harassment and bullying behaviors in sixth graders. Journal of School Violence, 7, 21-38.

Sexual harassment is widely viewed as a form of bullying, but has received little attention in studies of middle school students. A survey of 109 6th grade students found that 29% of students reported at least one sexual harassment experience in the past 30 days, with 11% reporting harassment once per week or more. Although boys and girls reported similar rates of harassment, there were important gender differences—boys were more likely than girls to try to ignore sexual harassment, but girls were more likely to tell someone about their experience and to tell the perpetrator to stop. There was high concordance between sexual harassment and bullying for both boys and girls. These findings indicate the need to recognize the role of sexual harassment in bullying in middle school.

Bandyopadhyay, S., Cornell, D., & Konold, T. (in press). Internal and external validity of three school climate scales from the School Climate Bullying Survey. School Psychology Review.

The School Climate Bullying Survey (SCBS; Cornell & Sheras, 2003) is a self–report survey used to measure attitudes and behaviors associated with school bullying. Two studies were conducted to examine the valid use of its three school climate scales: (1) Prevalence of Teasing and Bullying; (2) Aggressive Attitudes; and (3) Willingness to Seek Help. In Study 1, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed with a sample of 2,111 students from four middle schools and established reasonable fit for 20 items with their hypothesized scales. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses revealed good overall model fit. In Study 2, regression analyses using school-level measures aggregated from 7,318 ninth grade students attending 291 Virginia public high schools indicated that the three scales were related to meaningful criteria for school disorder.

Branson, C., & Cornell, D. (2009). A comparison of self and peer reports in the assessment of middle school bullying. Journal of Applied School Psychology. 25, 5-27.

Researchers examining the effectiveness of schoolwide anti-bullying programs typically use student self-reports to measure reductions in bullying. In contrast, researchers who study peer aggression frequently employ peer nominations. This study compared self-reports of bullying with peer nominations in a sample of 355 middle school students. Self-report demonstrated low to moderate correspondence with peer nominations for bullying others (r = .18) and for victimization (.32). More than twice as many students were categorized as bullies using peer nomination (11%) as compared to self-report (5%). Despite their limited agreement, both self and peer-reported bullying/victimization were associated with school maladjustment. These results raise concern about the reliance on self or peer reports alone to assess the prevalence of middle school bullying.

Brockenbrough, K., Cornell, D., & Loper, A. (2002). Aggressive victims of violence at school. Education and Treatment of Children, 273-287.

Some victims of violence at school hold aggressive attitudes which may place them at risk for involvement in high-risk behaviors. Based on a survey of 10,909 7th-, 9th-, and 11th-grade students, this study compared four groups of students: victims with aggressive attitudes (n = 152), victims with nonaggressive attitudes (n = 359), nonvictims with aggressive attitudes (n = 478), and nonvictims with nonaggressive attitudes (n = 2556). Victims with aggressive attitudes were more likely than students in the other three groups to report they had carried weapons, used alcohol, and engaged in physical fights at school. Both victims and nonvictims with aggressive attitudes reported lower academic grades and fewer supportive adults at school than the nonaggressive attitude groups. This study highlights the fact that victims with aggressive attitudes are a vulnerable group of students. Interventions for victims of school violence should be enhanced to address the needs of victims with aggressive attitudes.

Carlson, W., & Cornell, D. (2008). Differences between persistent and desistent middle school bullies. School Psychology International, 29, 442-451.

This study investigated differences in aggressive attitudes, academic achievement, and discipline referrals between bullies and non-bullies in a sample of 261 6th and 7th grade students over a two year period. Through the use of a peer nomination survey, 16 students were identified as bullies both years (persistent) and 21 were identified only in the first year (desistent). Across all students, aggressive attitudes were associated with poorer grades and more discipline infractions, but persistent bullies had the most aggressive attitudes and were more likely to get into trouble in school than desistent bullies or control students. Desistent bullies were more similar to control students than persistent bullies. These findings support the need to differentiate among middle school bullies and to focus attention on the aggressive attitudes of persistent bullies.

Cole, J., Cornell, D., & Sheras, P. (2006). Identification of school bullies by survey methods. Professional School Counseling.

Cornell, D., & Brockenbrough, K. (2004). Identification of bullies and victims: A comparison of methods. Journal of School Violence, 63-87 .

Bullying studies frequently rely on student self-report to identify bullies and victims of bullying, but research in the broader field of peer aggression makes greater use of other informants, especially peers, to identify aggressors and victims. This study compared self, peer, and teacher identification of bullies and bully victims in a sample of 416 middle school students. Overall, there was poor correspondence between self-reports and reports made by peers or teachers, but consistently better agreement between peers and teachers, in identifying both bullies and victims of bullying. Peer and teacher identification of bullies were more consistently associated with subsequent school disciplinary infractions than were self-reports. These results raise concern about reliance on student self-reports of bullying and bully victimization.

Eliot, M., & Cornell, D. (2009). Bullying in middle school as a function of insecure attachment and aggressive attitudes. School Psychology International, 30, 201-214.

This study tested a model for understanding peer bullying as the product of aggressive attitudes and insecure attachment. A sample of 110 sixth grade students completed self-report measures that assessed attitudes toward the use of aggressive behavior with peers and distinguished secure from insecure parental attachment. Bullying behavior was assessed using self and peer-report. Path analyses indicated that aggressive attitudes mediated a relationship between insecure attachment and bullying behavior. These findings have theoretical and applied implications for bullying prevention.

Lee, T., & Cornell, D. (in press). Concurrent validity of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Journal of School Violence.

This study examined the concurrent validity of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire (BVQ) in a convenience sample of 202 middle school students in central Virginia. This appears to be the first published study to compare BVQ reports of being bullied and of bullying others with independent criteria not subject to shared method variance. Self-reported bullying on the BVQ was significantly correlated with peer nominations for bullying (r = .12, p < .05) and academic grades (r = -.15, p < .05), but not disciplinary infractions. Self-reported victimization was significantly correlated with peer nominations for victimization (r = .42, p < .01) and academic grades (r = -.12, p < .01). These results provide only modest support for the concurrent validity of the BVQ and raise concern about reliance on student self-report to measure school bullying.

Marsh, T., & Cornell, D. (2001). Understanding ethnic differences in high-risk behavior at school. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 152-163.

Past research reported that non-White adolescent males often engage in high-risk behaviors at school such as weapon possession, gang involvement, and fighting. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that ethnic differences in high-risk behaviors might be better explained by differential school experiences. The study hypothesized that certain school experiences - termed experiential factors - rendered students more vulnerable to high-risk behaviors. The sample consisted of 7,848 7th, 9th, and 11th grade students who completed a school safety survey. Logistic regression analyses revealed that student school experiences explained more variance than ethnicity. Low academic grades, observation and threat of violence, drug use, and perceived lack of adult and peer support were experiential factors associated with student involvement in high-risk behaviors. These results support an emphasis on student experiences rather than on ethnic background in understanding high-risk behaviors at school. Download PDF file

McConville, D.W. & Cornell, D.G. (2003). Attitudes toward peer aggression and aggressive behavior in middle school students. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 179-187.

How are attitudes toward peer aggression related to aggressive behavior among middle school students? This study tested the validity of a short self-report measure of aggressive attitudes. We surveyed 423 middle school students and utilized four different outcome criteria for aggressive behavior: student self-report, peer and teacher nominations, and school discipline records. Aggressive attitudes correlated with self-reported aggressive behavior, and students with more aggressive attitudes had higher numbers of school discipline problems than students with less aggressive attitudes. This study shows that attitudes toward peer aggression are broadly linked to aggressive behavior, and that assessment of aggressive attitudes might be a useful component of violence prevention efforts in middle schools.

Thunfors, P., & Cornell, D. (2008). The popularity of middle school bullies. Journal of School Violence, 7, 65-82.

This study investigated the peer popularity of middle school students involved in bullying. Bullying was assessed by peer report using the School Climate Bullying Survey (SCBS) and popularity was assessed through peer nominations from a student roster. In a sample of 379 middle school students, bullies were among the most popular students in the school, receiving more peer nominations on average (21) than students uninvolved in bullying (13) or victims (4). Comparisons of popular and non-popular bullies found few differences, except that a) popular bullies were less likely to be victimized and b) female bullies had a greater likelihood of being popular than their male counterparts.

Unnever, J., & Cornell, D. G. (2003). Bullying, self control, and ADHD. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 129-147.

We investigated the influence of low self-control and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on bullying and bully victimization in a sample of 1,315 middle school students using a school survey. Students who reported taking medication for ADHD were at increased risk for bullying as well as victimization by bullies. The correlation between ADHD status and bullying could be explained by low self-control, a construct theorized by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) to be the most important determinant of criminality. In contrast, the correlation between ADHD status and bullying victimization was independent of self-control. Subsequent analyses found that self-control influenced bullying victimization through interactions with student gender and measures of physical size and strength. These findings identify low self-control and ADHD as potential risk factors for bullying and victimization, and have implications for research on self-control in young adolescents.

Unnever, J. & Cornell, D. (2003). The culture of bullying in middle school. Journal of School Violence, 2, 5-27.

The purpose of this study was to assess the nature and extent of student attitudes toward bullying. We investigated the consistency and prevalence of student attitudes across gender, race, socioeconimic status, and grade level. We also assessed whether students wit positive attitudes toward peer aggression and students with higher trait anger were especially prone to support a normative structure that encourages bullying. Based on a data set including 6 middle schools and over 2,400 students, our results indicate that aculture of bullying is a pervasive phenomenon among middle school students and should be an important consideration in bullying prevention efforts.

Unnever, J. & Cornell, D. (2004). Middle school victims of bullying: Who reports being bullied? Aggressive Behavior, 30, 373-388.

This study examined factors that influence a student's decision to report being bullied at school. An anonymous survey of 2,437 students in six middle schools identified 898 students who had been bullied, including 25% who had not told anyone that they were bullied and 40% who had not told an adult about their victimization. We investigated chronicity and type of bullying, school climate, familial, demographic, and attitudinal factors that influenced victim reporting to anyone versus no one, to adults versus no one, and to adults versus peers. Logistic regression analyses indicated
that reporting increased with the chronicity of victimization. Reporting was generally more frequent among girls than boys, and among lower grade levels. Students who perceived the school climate to be tolerant of
bullying, and students who described their parents as using coercive discipline were less likely to report being bullied. Implications for improving victim reporting of bullying are discussed.

Gangs

Amato, J.M. & Cornell, D.G. (2003). How do youth claiming gang membership differ from youth who claim membership in another group such as a clique, crew, posse, or mob? Journal of Gang Research, 10, 13-23.

This study investigated the contribution of gang membership to delinquency beyond involvement with delinquent peers, and compared youths who claimed membership in a gang with youths who denied gang membership, but admitted to being in another group such as a "crew." The sample consisted of 1376 boys and girls surveryed in a suburban high school. Group membership, association with delinquent peers, and delinquent behavior were assessed through self-report questionnaires. A MANCOVA determined that gang mebership had an additional effect on delinquency beyond associating with delinquent peers. Gang members reported the highest levels of delinquency, "crew" members reported the second-highest levels of delinquency, and non-affiliated youth reported the lowest levels of delinquency. Boys in gangs and groups reported higher levels of delinquency than girls in gangs in groups.

Cornell, D.G.; Messier, L.P.; Ward, T.; and Wong, W. (1997). Youth gangs in Virginia: a statewide detention survey. Poster presented at the 105th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association

We report results from a statewide surey of gang involvement administered to 737 (97%) of 757 juveniles incarcerated prior to adjudication in 17 Virginia detention centers. In confidential, anonymous interviews, approximately 23% of incarcerated youth reported gang membership, and an additional 18% reported involvement in a gang-like group such as a crew, clique, posse, or mob. Groups described as gangs had mor formal identification characteristics and engaged in more criminal activity than gang-like groups. These findings demonstrate the growing problem of youth gangs in Virginia and support a conceptual distinction between gangs and gang-like groups.

Juvenile Delinquency

Branson, C., & Cornell, D. (2007). Correspondence of the MACI and PIY in juvenile offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 7, 65-100.

This study examined the correspondence between the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) and the Personality Inventory for Youth (PIY) in a sample of 105 incarcerated juvenile offenders. Intercorrelations between MACI and PIY scales ranged from -.66 to .67; 191 (79%) of the 243 correlations were statistically significant (p < .05). However, diagnostic correspondence between the two instruments was modest, with kappa coefficients for five pairs of conceptually similar scales (e.g., MACI Delinquent Predisposition and PIY Delinquency) ranging from .04 to .48. Surprisingly, most juvenile offenders did not obtain clinically significant elevations on the MACI (32) or PIY (19) delinquency scales. We caution clinicians about the different findings that result from the choice of self-report instrument to assess juvenile offenders.

Cornell, D. G. (1999). Child and adolescent homicide. In Van Hasselt and Hersen (Eds.). Handbook of Psychological Approaches with Violent Offenders: Contemporary Strategies and Issues. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, pp. 131-150.

This book chapter describes the problem of child and adolescent homicide, starting with a review of literature and epidemiological overview. It describes individual characteristics and family patterns of several subgroups of young homicide offenders. Next, the chapter covers assessment and diagnostic issues, with particular reference to forensic issues such as competency to stand trial, transfer to adult court, and disposition. Finally, there are recommendations for clinical management and treatment, in the context of what is known about course, prognosis, and recidivism. Download PDF file

Cornell, D. G., Loper, A. B., Atkinson, A. J., & Sheras, P. L. (1999). Youth violence prevention in Virginia: A needs assessment. Richmond, VA: The Center for Injury and Violence Prevention, Virginia Department of Health.

This 134-page publication reports findings from a statewide needs assessment examining both school- and community-based youth violence. The first chapter covers regional patterns and differences in youth violence as well as family and social characteristics of youth at greatest risk for violent crime. The second chapter presents an overview of effective violence prevention practices for communities, schools and families, based on published empirical research. Chapter 3 covers the numerous prevention efforts already in place in Virginia, including funding sources and agency programs. Chapter 4 presents professional opinions on Virginia prevention needs based on two perspectives - results of the Attorney General's Task Force on Youth Gangs and Violence and a statewide survey of educators, mental health, social services, and law enforcement professionals involved in youth violence prevention efforts. The final chapter presents a series of recommendations for systematic improvement and improved coordination of current prevention efforts, and identifies critical program needs. This publication is available from the Virginia Youth Violence Project. (Click here for information.)

Cornell, D. G., Peterson, C. S., & Richards, H. (1999). Anger as a predictor of aggression among incarcerated adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 108-115.

This study examined the validity of trait anger as a predictor of aggressive behavior among juvenile offenders. Two standard self-report anger scales were administered to 65 recently incarcerated male adolescents. These youth were followed prospectively for physical and verbal aggression during 3 months of subsequent incarceration. Anger scores were not correlated with participant history of violent offending or staff ratings of anger. However, anger scores from both instruments were predictive of subsequent physical and verbal aggression. The most discriminating scale, Trait Anger, successfully classified 66% of youth into high and low aggressive groups; receiver operating characteristic analysis obtained an effect size of .72. These results support the predictive validity of self-reported anger in identifying juvenile offenders at risk for institutional aggression.

Hiatt, M., & Cornell, D. G. (1999). Assessment of depression with the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI). Journal of Personality Assessment, 73, 64-79.

This study examined the concurrent validity of the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI; Millon, 1993) in the assessment of depression among 88 adolescent inpatients. Doleful Personality and Depressive Affect scales were moderately predictive of a clinical diagnosis of depression, but both scales were strongly associated with scores on the Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1992). The Suicidal Tendencies scale was weakly associated with placement on suicide precautions. Overall, these results provide moderate support for the use of the MACI in the assessment of hospitalized adolescents.

Loper, A. B., Hoffschmidt, S. J. & Ash, E. (2001). Personality features and characteristics of violent events committed by juvenile offenders. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 19, 81-96.

The present study investigated the relationship between characteristics of a violent event, as self-reported by 82 incarcerated juvenile offenders, and personality features measured by the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI). The study predicted that specific personality features that have previously been associated with psychopathy would be associated with the instrumentality, emotional reactivity, and empathy or guilt reported for the incident. Results confirmed that a self-reported pattern of elevated instrumental motivation and reduced empathy or guilt was associated with higher scores on the MACI Forceful, Unruly, Substance Abuse Proneness, Impulsive Propensity, and Family Discord Scales, as well as a recently developed Psychopathy Content Scale. Self-reported elevated instrumental motivation and reduced empathy or guilt was also associated with lower scores on the Submissive, Conforming, Anxious Feelings, and Sexual Discomfort Scales. There were no significant relationships observed between emotional reactivity and personality scales.

Loper, A. B.(2000). Adult too soon: Age-sensitive interventions with delinquent girls. Reaching Today's Youth, 4, 12-16.

This paper summarizes recent information regarding teenage parenting, abuse history, and substance abuse among delinquent girls. The article stresses the importance of responding to these problems with interventions which recognize the developmental needs of girls. Two model programs which incorporate developmental perspectives into treatment are described.

Loper, A. B. & Cornell, D. G. (1996). Homicide by juvenile girls. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 323-336.

We investigated offense characteristics for a national sample of 38,749 homicide arrestees identified in the FBI Supplemental Homicide Reports for 1984 and 1993. Analyses indicated little change from 1984 to 1993 in the circumstances of homicides committed by adolescent girls; however, there were consistent offense differences between girls and boys, and between girls and women. Homicides by adolescent girls were more likely than those committed by boys to involve interpersonal conflict rather than a criminal motive such as robbery. Girls were more likely than boys to use a knife rather than a firearm and their victims were more likely to be under the age of 13 years. Compared to women (18 years or older), girls were more likely to act with an accomplice and their victims were more likely to be female and between 13 and 20 years of age. Results were inconsistent with a stereotypic masculinization theory of the increase in female violence, but provide indirect support for the importance of domestic stress and relational conflict experienced by adolescent girls. Overall, this study supports the need for differentiated study of violence by juvenile girls, and for preventive interventions which target domestic and interpersonal stress.

McKnight, L. R. & Loper, A. B. (2002). The effect of risk and resilience factors on the prediction of delinquency in adolescent girls. School Psychology International, 23, 186-198.

The present study investigated the effects of fairly immutable risk factors, such as poverty, and resiliency factors representing person choice, such as school involvement, on the prediction of delinquency in adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that the contribution of resiliency and risk factors would improve the prediction of delinquency greater than the contribution of risk factors alone. An initial regression analysis examined self-reported delinquency (N= 2245) in a sample of adolescent girls from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (ADD Health). All girls with complete data from the Add Health Study were used for this study. This group was then split in half for each of the analyses. Resiliency factors improved prediction of delinquency (R2 = ,31, DR2 = .26) beyond that afforded by risk factors alone. A second investigation (N = 335) focused on girls classified as at-risk for delinquency. Resilience items distinguished girls who reported high levels of delinquency from those that reported low levels of delinquency (Accuracy = 80%).

Wong, W., & Cornell, D. G. (1999). PIQ > VIQ discrepancy as a correlate of social information processing and aggression in delinquent adolescent males. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 17, 104-112.

Numerous studies have established an association between a PIQ > VIQ discrepancy and juvenile delinquency. However, the reasons for this connection are unclear. In this study, we investigated the PIQ > VIQ discrepancy in a sample of 95 male adolescent delinquents and found that it was related not only to delinquency but also to social problem solving. We found that the PIQ > VIQ discrepancy was related to greater hostile attributional bias on a social problem-solving task. However, we did not find a link between the PIQ > VIQ discrepancy and measures of aggression.

Juvenile Psychopathy

Amato, J., Cornell, D., Fan, X. (2008). Adolescent psychopathy: Factor structure and correspondence with the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI). Criminal Justice & Behavior, 35, 294-310.

This study compared five proposed factor models of psychopathy in a sample of 227 adolescent incarcerated offenders and psychiatric inpatients. Results of CFA indicated that both Cooke and Michie’s three-factor model and a four-factor parceled solution (Neumann, Kosson, & Salekin, 2007) using Hare’s (2003) four factors provided excellent fit. The original two-factor model and the three-and four-factor models from the PCL:YV manual (Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003) provided inadequate fit. Correlational analyses revealed a meaningful pattern of statistically significant relationships between psychopathy factor scores and several factor scores on the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI). Regression analyses indicated Hare’s Antisocial factor (F4) provided incremental validity beyond other psychopathy factors in predicting scores on the MACI Antisocial-Delinquent factor.

Boccaccini, M.T., Murrie, D.C., Clark, J. & Cornell, D.G. (2008). Describing, diagnosing, and naming psychopathy: How do youth psychopathy labels influence jurors? Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 26, 487-510.

Previous studies have reached opposing conclusions regarding how psychopathy assessment influences the court's response to a juvenile defendant. This study sought to clarify the apparent discrepancies across studies by distinguishing among three key variables: history of antisocial behavior (substantial versus minimal), psychopathic personality traits (present versus absent), and diagnostic label (no diagnosis, conduct disorder, psychopathy, or “is a psychopath”). We systematically manipulated these variables in vignettes describing expert testimony, and then distributed these vignettes to 891 jury-pool members. Descriptions of the antisocial behavior and psychopathic personality traits underlying diagnoses tended to have stronger effects than did the diagnostic labels (i.e. psychopathy or conduct disorder). However, labeling juvenile defendants with the colloquial term “psychopath” led jurors to believe that they posed greater risk for future crime and deserved greater punishment compared with juveniles described as meeting diagnostic criteria for psychopathy or conduct disorder. Results should influence the language forensic evaluators use in practice. Results should also inform research that investigates diagnostic labeling effects.

Kaplan, S.G., & Cornell, D.G. (2004). Psychopathy and ADHD in adolescent male offenders. Youth violence and juvenile justice.

This study investigated the relationship between psychopathy traits and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in juvenile offenders. The authors examined psychopathy scores, as measured by the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version and three indices of ADHD in 122 incarcerated male juvenile offenders. In addition, they investigated whether psychopathy and ADHD predicted violent behvaior. Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version Total and Factor 1 scores did not correlate with measures of ADHD, although Factor 2 scores were weakly associated with two of three ADHD indices. Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version scores, but not ADHD indicators, were correlated with violent behavior. Download PDF file

Murrie, D.C., Boccaccini, M.T., McCoy, W. & Cornell, D.G. (2007). Diagnostic labeling in juvenile court: How do descriptions of psychopathy and conduct disorder influence judges? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 228-241.

When child psychologists in forensic contexts assign youth diagnostic labels such as psychopathy or conduct disorder, are judges more punitive towards the labeled youth? Or, are judges more influenced by the criteria underlying such diagnostic labels? A national sample of juvenile and family court judges (N = 326) rendered hypothetical dispositions based on one of twelve mock psychological evaluations. The evaluations varied the presence of two sets of diagnostic criteria (antisocial behavioral history and psychopathic personality traits) and three diagnostic labels (conduct disorder, psychopathy, no diagnosis) in order to distinguish criterion effects from labeling effects. Results revealed substantial effects (Cohen's d's of .33 to 1.27 on six of nine variables) for having a history of antisocial behavior. Psychopathic personality features also appeared influential, albeit on fewer variables. Surprisingly, there were no negative effects associated with either the conduct disorder or psychopathy label. We conclude that researchers should attend as much to criterion effects as to simple labeling effects, and that child psychologists working in forensic contexts should consider carefully the ways in which they describe the criteria underlying their diagnoses.

Murrie, D., & Cornell, D. (2000). Adolescent psychopathy and the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 75, 110-125.

We investigated the ability of the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) to assess psychopathy as measured by the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). Participants were 90 adolescents in an inpatient psychiatric unit. The MACI's Substance Abuse Proneness (r = .47), Unruly (r = 43), and Submissive (r = -.42) scales correlated most strongly with the PCL-R. Using a discriminant function analysis, the Substance Abuse Proneness scale correctly distinguished between high and low psychopathy content scale using 20 MACI items. This content scale correlated with the PCL-R (r = .60) and distinguished high and low psychopathy groups in 83% (Kappa = .66) of cases (sensitivity 85%, specificity 81%).

Murrie, D., & Cornell. D. (2002). Psychopathy screening of incarcerated juveniles: A comparison of measures. Psychological Assessment. 14, 390-396.

How well do brief screening measures correspond with a full-scale assessment of psychopathy among juvenile offenders? This study compared three independent screening measures (Psychopathy Screening Device self-report, Psychopathy Screening Device staff rating, and MACI Psychopathy Content Scale) with the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) in a sample of 117 incarcerated males. We found modest correlations (.30 to .49) between PCL:YV scores and the three screening measures, and moderate accuracy (67 to 82%) in identifying youth who scored relatively high (>25) on the PCL:YV. Although these results support the construct of adolescent psychopathy, they indicate substantial limitations in the use of psychopathy screening measures with juvenile offenders. Download PDF File

Murrie, D., Cornell, D., Kaplan, S., McConville, S., & Levy Elkon, A. (2004). Psychopathy scores and violence among juvenile offenders: A multi-measure study. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22, 49-67.

This study examined the relations between psychopathy scores and violent behavior in 113 incarcerated adolescents. We compared the results of four different instruments designed to assess psychopathy features among juveniles--the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV), two versions of the Antisocial Processes Screening Device (APSD), and a Psychopathy Content scale on the Millon Adoelscent Clinical Inventory (MACI). We found that PCL: YV scores were significantly correlated with violent offense history, unadjudicated violence, and institutional violence, as well as measures of the severity and instrumentality of prior violence. Receiver operating characteristic analyses generated statistically signficant effect sizes (AUC values) ranging from 0.64 to 0.79. The three other measures generated statistically significant correlations with one or more of the violence criteria, although correlations and effect sizes tended to be smaller in magnitude. Our results offer some support for the validity of these measures of psychopathic features, and the value of the PCL: YV in particular, with respect to short-term measures of violence outcome among juvenile offenders.

Murrie, D., Cornell, D., & McCoy, W. (2005). Psychopathy, Conduct Disorder, and Stigma: Does diagnostic language affect juvenile probation officer recommendations? Law and Human Behavior, 29, 323-342.

This study investigated the potential influence of labeling a juvenile as psychopathic. Juvenile probation officers (JPOs; N = 260) rendered hypothetical recommendations based on eight mock psychological evaluations. The evaluations varied the presence of two diagnostic criteria (antisocial behavioral history and psychopathic personality traits) and diagnostic labels (psycohpathy, conduct disorder, no diagnosis) in order to distinguish criterion effects from labeling effects. The diagnostic criteria of antisocial behavior had a substantial effect on JPO recommendations (effect sizes .50-.79), while the diagnostic criteria of psychopathic personality traits had a more limited effect. Surprisingly, diagnostic labels had little effect, and there was no appreciable differences between conduct disorder and psychopathy diagnoses. These findings illustrate the importance of distinguishing diagnostic criterion effects from diagnostic labeling effects. Download PDF File

Stafford, E., & Cornell, D. (2003). Psychopathy scores predict adolescent inpatient aggression. Assessment, 10, 1-11.

This prospective study found that psychopathy scores predicted aggressive behavior among 72 adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Psychopathy was assessed within three days of hospital admission by clinical raters trained in the use of Hare's Psychopathy Checklist (Revised). Aggressive behavior was recorded by clinical staff who were unaware of psychopathy ratings. Adolescents rated higher in psychopathy exhibited higher frequencies of aggressive behavior, including physical aggression against peers and staff, than adolescents rated lower in psychopathy. Psychopathy scores discriminated high and low aggressive youth with 71% accuracy. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis yielded an effect size of .78. Download PDF File

Threat Assessment

Allen, K., Cornell, D., & Lorek, E. (2008). Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 319-332.

School safety has become an important area of concern for school improvement. This study examined the effects of staff training as means of improving school responses to student threats of violence. A multidisciplinary sample of 351 staff from two school divisions completed pre-post training surveys as part of a one-day training program using the Guidelines for Responding to Student Threats of Violence. Analysis of pre-post surveys found large changes in staff attitudes toward school safety and violence prevention efforts. There was a substantial decrease in concerns about school homicide and increased awareness of effective violence prevention efforts. There was a drop in support for zero tolerance and profiling approaches, along with increased knowledge of threat assessment principles and concepts. These changes were sustained across school divisions serving a challenging urban population and a more affluent, suburban population. Similar effects were found across all school personnel. These findings demonstrate the viability of training staff in a student threat assessment approach.

Cornell, D. (2003). Guidelines for responding to student threats of violence. Journal of Educational Administration, 41, 705-719.

A series of highly publicized school shootings in the USA generated the misperception of an epidemic of school violence. Fears of school violence stimulated an ill-advised expansion of zero tolerance school discipline policies and the widespread dissemination of profiles or warning signs of potentially dangerous students for use by school administrators. This article presents the rationale for student threat assessment as an adminstrative alternative to zero tolerance or profiling. It describes the development and field-testing of guildelines for school administrators for follow in investigating and resolving student threats of violence. Student threat assessment permits administrators to make reasonable judgments about the seriousness of a threat, to resolve most threats quickly and efficiently, and to reserve more labor-intensive procedures for the most serious threats. Download PDF File

Cornell, D.G. (1998). Designing safer schools for Virginia: A guide to keeping students safe from violence. Charlottesville, VA: Thomas Jefferson Center for Educational Design, Curry School of Education, University of Virginia.

This 47-page guidebook was prepared to assist Virginia educators in implementing a statewide requirement to conduct school safety audits. There is a brief overview of the nature and scope of violence in Virginia schools, based on several state and local studies. Next, there is a review of school safety needs, covering topics such as building security, use of student surveys, staff development, the role of law enforcement, and the development of crisis management plans. Finally, there is a summary of effective violence prevention strategies, based on empirical research.

Cornell, D. G., & Loper, A. B. (1998). Assessment of violence and other high-risk behaviors with a school survey. School Psychology Review, 27, 317-330.

This study reports the results of a school safety survey administered to 10,909 7th-, 9th-, and 11th-grade students in a Virginia suburban school district. The survey assesses attitudes toward aggressive behavior and high-risk behaviors including weapon carrying, fighting, and substance use. Analyses of statistical significance and effect size indicated that the elimination of surveys judged to be invalid substantially reduced the reported incidence of all forms of high-risk behavior; although boys reported more high-risk behavior than girls, more than 10% of girls reported high-risk behavior including fighting, substance use, and carrying weapons at school within a 30-day period; aggressive attitudes and gang membership were linked to high-risk behaviors; and there was a strong correspondence between high-risk behaviors at school and outside of school, but lower frequencies at school than outside of school. These results have implications for future use of school surveys and identification of students likely to engage in high-risk behavior.

Cornell, D. G., & Sheras, P. L. (1998). Common errors in school crisis response: Learning from our mistakes. Psychology in the Schools, 35, 297-307.

This article describes five school crises involving alcohol-related fatality, self-injurious behavior, school homicide, racial/ethnic conflict, and community violence. In each case example, errors in crisis management by school staff exacerbated the crisis and resulted in deleterious consequences for the school, its students, and the surrounding community. We identify common themes of leadership, teamwork, and responsibility that are critical to successful crisis management.

Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly.

Threat assessment has been widely recommended as a violence prevention approach for schools, but there are few empirical studies of its use. This non-experimental study of 280 Virginia public high schools compared 95 high schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines (Cornell & Sheras, 2006), 131 following other (i.e., locally developed) threat assessment procedures, and 54 not using a threat assessment approach. A survey of ninth grade students in each school obtained measures of student victimization, willingness to seek help for bullying and threats of violence, and perceptions of the school climate as caring and supportive. Students in schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines reported less bullying, greater willingness to seek help, and more positive perceptions of the school climate than students in either of the other two groups of schools. In addition, schools using the Virginia guidelines had fewer long-term suspensions than schools using other threat assessment approaches. These group differences could not be attributed to school size, minority composition or socio-economic status of the student body, neighborhood violent crime, or the extent of security measures in the schools. Implications for threat assessment practice and research are discussed.

Cornell, D.G., Sheras, P.L., Kaplan, S., McConville, D., Douglass, J., Elkon, A., et al. (2004). Guidelines for student threat assessment: Field-test findings. School Psychology Review, 33, 527-546.

A demonstration project was conducted to field-test guidelines for schools to use in responding to student threats of violence. Results from 188 student threats occurring in 35 schools over the course of one school year are described. School-based teams used a decision-tree model to evaluate the seriousness of a threat and take appropriate action to reduce the threat of violence. Using threat assessment guidelines, the majority of cases (70%) were resolved quickly as transient threats. More serious cases, termed substantive threats (30%), required a more extensive evaluation and intervention plan. Follow-up interviews with school principals revealed that almost all students were able to continue in school or return to school after a brief suspension. Only 3 students were expelled, and none of the threatened acts of violence were carried out. These findings indicate that student threat assessment is a feasible, practical approach for schools that merits more extensive study. Download PDF File

Furlong, M., Morrison, G., Cornell, D., & Skiba, R. (2004). Methodological and measurement issues in school violence: Moving beyond the social problem era. Journal of School Violence, 3, 5-12.

School violence became a topic of intense national concern in the United States in reaction to a series of tragic school shootings during the 1990s. Efforts to understand and prevent school shootings have stimulated the rapid development of a broader interest in school safety with an emerging multidisciplinary research agenda. The maturation and fulfillment of this research agenda require that researchers critically examine their research methods and measurement strategies. This article introduces a special issue of the Journal of School Violence that examines fundamental methodological and measurement issues in the rapidly expanding body of research on school safety and violence. The authors hope to stimulate greater attention to methodological pitfalls and critical measurement issues that hinder research progress in several related areas, including the uncertain reliability and validity of self-report surveys used to measure high risk behavior and bullying, the limitations of discipline referral databases as a source of information on school climate, and the overly narrow focus on relatively infrequent critical incidents of violence, often at the expense of a more comprehensive and multifactorial examination of the school environment.

Gregory, A., & Cornell, D. (in press). Tolerating adolescent needs: Moving beyond zero tolerance policies in high school. Theory into Practice.

The authors contend that zero tolerance discipline policies are inconsistent with adolescent developmental needs for authoritative, as distinguished from authoritarian, discipline. Previous research has applied the notion of authoritative parenting to teaching styles in classrooms, and a similar model of authoritative discipline can guide schoolwide discipline policies and practices (Gregory & Weinstein, 2004; Walker, 2008; Wentzel, 2002). Schoolwide authoritative discipline combines high levels of both structure and support. The authors conceptualize school structure as adequate supervision of students and consistent and fair enforcement of school rules. They conceptualize school support as the availability of positive adult-student relationships, help for struggling students, and programs to address students’ nonacademic needs. With its firm but fair and supportive approach, authoritative discipline can create a safe and secure learning environment conducive to student engagement and achievement.

Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107-119.

This study examined school response to threats of violence made by students receiving special education services. Comparisons were made between threats of violence by K-12 students in special education (120 cases) and general education (136 cases) in 49 schools that implemented threat assessment guidelines for managing student threats of violence (Cornell, et al., 2004; Cornell & Sheras, in press). Students in special education exhibited nearly five times the rate of threats compared to students in general education. Students classified as Emotionally Disturbed (ED) exhibited the highest threat rates (170 per thousand students). Students with Learning Disability (20 per thousand students) and Other Health Impaired (with ADHD diagnoses) (40 per thousand students) classifications also exhibited higher threat rates than students in general education (7 per thousand students). Despite the high rates of threats by students in special education, schools did not use external suspension for students in special education with greater frequency or for longer periods of time than students in regular education for threats of violence. IDEA practices such as the manifestation determination review and the use of functional behavioral assessments and behavior intervention plans are compatible with a threat assessment approach. In conclusion, study findings support the use of threat assessment to manage threats of violence by students in special education.

Reis, C., & Cornell, D. (2008). An evaluation of suicide gatekeeper training for school counselors and teachers. Professional School Counseling, 11, 386-394.

This study compared counselors and teachers on measures of suicide knowledge and prevention practices after participation in a statewide training program in student suicide prevention using the Question Persuade Refer (QPR) program. Follow-up surveys conducted an average of 4.7 months after training indicated that trainees (73 counselors and 165 teachers) demonstrated greater knowledge of suicide risk factors and reported making more no-harm contracts than controls (74 counselors and 98 teachers). In comparison to teachers, counselors demonstrated greater knowledge of risk factors and reported questioning more potentially suicidal students, and making more contracts and outside referrals. These findings support the value of gatekeeper training for both counselors and teachers, and substantiate the important role of counselors in suicide prevention.

Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis City Schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders, 34, 42-54.

Threat assessment has been widely recommended as a violence prevention approach for schools, but there are few reports of its implementation. Memphis City Schools adapted the Virginia threat assessment guidelines (Cornell & Sheras, 2006) for use by a centralized team serving 194 schools and a student population of 118,000. This article describes 209 student threats referred for assessment during a single school year and the resulting educational placements and disciplinary consequences. There were no reports of students carrying out any of the violent threats. These results support further examination of student threat assessment as a promising approach to dealing with student threats.

Williams, F., & Cornell, D. (2006). Student willingness to seek help for threats of violence. Journal of School Violence, 5, 35-49.

This study examined factors that influence a student’s willingness to seek help for a threat of violence. The sample consisted of 542 middle school students who completed an anonymous survey that asked students how likely they would be to seek help in response to being bullied or threatened. The survey also included measures of type of bullying, attitudes toward aggressive behavior, and perceptions of teacher tolerance for bullying. Stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that willingness to seek help is lower in higher grade levels and among males. Students who hold aggressive attitudes and perceive the school climate to be tolerant of bullying were less likely to report a willingness to seek help. Implications for improving student willingness to seek help are discussed.

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